The Face of the Nation : gendered institutions in international affairs

1. Where Are the Women? 1

Who Gets to Represent the Nation Internationally? 3

Why Gender and International Affairs Matters Now: The Critical Juncture 6

Australia’s Evolving International Representation 12

What Can We Learn from the Australian Case? 15

Book Structure 17

2. Exploring Theories on Gender and International Affairs 23

Understanding Feminist Institutionalist Theory 24

Situating Intersectional Feminist Institutional within the Field of IR 33

Gendered Nature of Diplomacy, National Security, and International Affairs 35

Locating Gender in Australian International Affairs Agencies 40

The Theoretical Frameworks 46

Intersectional Feminist Institutionalism (IFI) 46

A Framework for Studying International Institutions 47

An Approach to Studying Institutional Change and Inequality 48

3. Who I Researched and How I Did It 50

Being a Critical Feminist Friend 50

Intersectional Feminist Institutional (IFI) Research Design 52

Data Collection: On-Ground, In-Person, and International 56

Qualitative Interviews 56

Quantitative Trend Data 62

Data Analysis: Themes, Narratives, and Trends 63

Accessing Elites and Delving Into the Diplomatic Bubble 64

Ethical Clearance 68

4. Historical Developments in International Affairs and Deep Insights Into the Case Agencies 69

The Australian Cases: Institutional History and Cultural Relics 70

Setting the Context 71

Eliteness Eroded in the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) 76

Historical Forces 77

Structure and Leadership 84

More than a Golden Handshake: Defence 88

Historical Forces 88

Structure and Leadership 98

The Dark Side: Home Affairs 104

Historical Forces 104

Structure and Leadership 112

Police-Led Diplomacy: AFP 114

Historical Forces 115

Structure and Leadership 119

Overarching Trends 123

5. Which Women Lead International Affairs? 125

Where Are the Women of Colour? 126

Queering International Representation 132

A Class of Its Own? 137

Family and Baggage to Follow 139

Geographic Reach and Patterns of Deployment 140

Straight, White, and . . . Female? 142

6. Where Are the Women in International Affairs Leadership? 144

Tracing Women’s Representation in Australian International Affairs 145

DFAT 154

Defence 156

Home Affairs 158

AFP 159

Divided by Gender, Status, and International Appointments 161

Overarching Themes and Trends 165

7. How Did You Get There? Career Paths and Leadership 168

Pathways to Posting 169

Strategising Around Difficulties on the Path to Progression 170

Politicised, Instable, and Obscured: Navigating How to Get an International Posting 173

Gendered Factors Determine Which Posts to Apply for and Accept 175

Experiences Once on Posting 181

Gendered Rules Define Deployment 181

Externalised (Gendered) Costs Underpin Experiences on Post 184

Returning from Posting 195

What Happens, and Why, Women Leave 197

Succeeding in Leadership Takes More Than Skills and Experience 200

Making It to the Global Stage 203

8. Why Do Women Remain Underrepresented (and Unequal) in International Affairs? 206

Novel Findings Transforming Our Understanding of Gender and International Affairs 208

More Militaristic Agencies More Proportionally Represent Women 209

Genteel Toxic Masculinities Dominate in More Traditionally Diplomatic Agencies 210

The Diplomatic Glass Cliff: Women’s Representation and Diplomacy’s Decline 212

Women with Wives Fit the Heteronormative Diplomatic Institution 213

Domestic Gendered Challenges Trump Those of International Representation 214

Women’s Experiences of International Affairs Are Consistent Across Agencies 216

Implications of These Findings 217

The Historical Gendered Legacies of Institutions 217

Layering and Duplication of Gendered Institutions 221

Leila’s Story: Working in DFAT 223

Danielle’s Story: Working in Defence 224

Talia’s Story: Working in Home Affairs 225

Meaghan’s Story: Working in the AFP 226

Implications 227

Compounding Effect of Gendered Institutions 228

Evolving Inequalities 229

Conclusion: How Inequality Evolves in International Institutions 231

The Big Lessons Learned 232

Implications for Global Affairs 238

Where to From Here? 239

Final Thoughts 240

Notes 243

Index 279