Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies
Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies
Table of Contents
Preface to the First
Edition . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface to the Second
Edition . . . . . . . . x
Introduction . . . . . .
. . . . . . xi
PART ONE: THE MIDDLE
EASTERN STATE IN TRANSITION
Section I: The Middle
Eastern State until 1914
I. THE CONCEPTION OF THE
STATE IN WEST AND EAST . . . 3
Function, principles and
distinguishing features—Capitulations, "millets" and their
importance—the plural constitution.
II. INTERNAL POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE . . . 10
The Empire in the stage
of reform: achievements and failures—period of the Tanzimat—decrees of
1839, 1856 and proclamation of the Constitution in 1876—attitude of Abdul Hamid
II—rise of the Young Turks.
III. CHANGES IN STATE
INSTITUTIONS . . . 18
Despotism and
Constitution—Khalifate and Sultanate—Islamic thought and the evolution of the law—civic
rights of the people under the new Ottoman constitution.
IV. THE ROLE OF
BUREAUCRACY (APPARATUS OF GOVERNMENT) . . . 30
Share of bureaucracy in
the Oriental and the modern State—corruption and venality as accepted
practices—attitude of the authorities towards this problem (Courts, local
administration, foreign consulates)—extension of administration and increasing
specialisation of the Civil Service.
V. CHANGES IN LOCAL
GOVERNMENT . . . 39
Local government before
the reforms—the feudal lords and local government—organs of local and
provincial governments—the reforms of Mahmud II and his successors—social and
political structure of population.
VI. PUBLIC FINANCE IN THE
MIDDLE EAST . . . 51
Historical summary—land
taxes as main source of public revenue—relation between the structure of the
Oriental State and public finance—Nineteenth century reforms.
Section II: The Middle
Eastern State between two World Wars
VII. CONSEQUENCES OF THE
LIQUIDATION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE . . . 62
Changes in the political map
and in the composition of the population—principles that shaped the Middle East
after the First World War.
VIII. THE NEW TURKEY . .
. 68
Exchange of
populations—birth of a new constitution—new education policy—programmes and
reality.
IX. THE ARAB SUCCESSION
STATES . . . 77
Historical survey—steps
preliminary to the establishment of the Arab States—Creation of the Mandate.
X. THE MANDATE AND ITS
LESSON . . . 88
A new type of
State—criteria of maturity.
XI. (a) POLITICAL RÉGIME
AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE ARAB SUCCESSION STATES . . . 95
(b) THE WESTERNISING OF
ADMINISTRATION . . . 97
Social Structures and
Political Parties.
PART TWO: THE AGRARIAN
SOCIETY OF THE MIDDLE EAST
Section I: Stationary
Agriculture
XII. THE HERITAGE
CONDITIONS OF LAND TENURE . . . 105
General
features—historical summary (Babylon, Egypt, Palestine, Byzantine Empire)—Early
Islamic period.
XIII. AGRARIAN
INSTITUTIONS OF MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES . . . 115
Categories of land in
Islamic law—Mushaa (common landownership), Waqf (mortmain
lands)—Oriental feudalism—types of farm management and distribution of income
from the land in Oriental agriculture—summary.
XIV. NATURAL FACTORS IN
STATIONARY AGRICULTURE . . . 139
Climate (temperature,
rainfall, water courses and wells, "rain factor", periodicity,
air-currents and humidity)—steppe character of Oriental areas—soil
properties—importance of natural conditions.
XV. OTHER FACTORS IN
STATIONARY AGRICULTURE . . . 153
Conditions for mass
transport—the Oriental worker and his specific qualities—implements and means
of cultivation—scarcity of capital—growth of population.
XVI. PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF
FARMING IN ORIENTAL STATIONARY AGRICULTURE . . . 164
Problem of the
"Asiatic Agrarian Society"—Main systems: dry farming and irrigated
agriculture—Prerequisites of irrigated farming—irrigation and the agrarian
economy as a whole—irrigation as a factor in the economy of the individual
farm—implements of irrigation.
Section II: Agriculture
in Transition
XVII. CHANGES IN
CONDITIONS OF LAND TENURE . . . 186
Changes in land
ownership—Re-emergence of the large landowner in the nineteenth century (Syria,
Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq, Egypt)—Waqf and Mushaa—land reforms.
XVIII. CHANGES IN
AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND METHODS . . . 199
Introduction of basin
irrigation in place of flood irrigation—diversification of crops and increase
of areas by irrigation—increase of productivity—importance of
communication—summary of trends.
PART THREE: THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Section I: The
Pre-Industrial Period
XIX. GENERAL FEATURES . .
. 213
The meaning of the
Industrial Revolution—the problem of capitalism in Oriental countries—distribution
of the population over town and country—living conditions in Oriental towns at
the beginning of the nineteenth century.
XX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF
NON-AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION FROM THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE DEATH
OF MOHAMMED ALI (1849) . . . 227
Local conditions and
character of production—relations between employers and employees—the guilds (futuwwa).
XXI. THE ATTEMPT OF
MOHAMMED ALI: THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST . . . 238
The history of Mohammed
Ali's experiments—his failure and its lessons.
XXII. THE INFLUX OF
EUROPEAN CAPITAL AND ENTREPRENEURS (1850-1914) . . . 247
The background for the
attraction of European capital—its principal fields of activity—prerequisites
of industrialisation.
XXIII. DEVELOPMENT OF
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION DURING THE PERIOD 1850-1914 . . . 258
Slow but important
changes—progress in figures—conclusions as to this period—sociological aspects.
Section II: The
Industrialisation of the Middle East between the two World Wars
XXIV. THE NEW POLITICAL
AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS . . . 269
The background:
political, economic and sociological factors—population trend as a factor in
industrialisation.
XXV. THE NEW POLICY OF
INDUSTRIALISATION UP TO 1945 . . . 274
The industrial policy in
Turkey—State and industrialisation in other Oriental countries (Egypt, Iraq,
Palestine, Syria and Lebanon).
XXVI. THE ECONOMIC
EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN FIGURES . . . 292
(i) Developments until
1945
(ii) Developments since
1945
Structure of foreign
trade—occupational distribution of the population, etc.—progress of industrial
development in figures.
XXVII. PRESENT-DAY
PROBLEMS OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST . . . 312
Industrialisation and
national income—the Machine and Oriental Society—social and political effects
of industrialisation.
XXVIII. CHANGES IN THE
SYSTEM OF COMMUNICATIONS . . . 320
The contraction of the
Oriental space—traditional means of communication—opening-up of the Orient
after the First World War.
PART FOUR: PROBLEMS AND
ASPECTS OF A CHANGING SOCIETY
XXIX. THE ISLAMIC
SOCIETY—HISTORICAL ASPECTS . . . 333
The idea of equality—the
"foreigners" and Islam—the slaves.
XXX. STRUCTURE OF THE
TRADITIONAL ORIENTAL CITY . . . 343
XXXI. MOSLEM SOCIETY IN
TRANSITION . . . 348
XXXII. ECONOMIC ETHICS OF
MOSLEM SOCIETY . . . 352
XXXIII. THE STANDARD OF
LIVING . . . 365
XXXIV. THE NOMADS . . .
369
XXXV. SUMMARY . . . 380
Postscript: THE MIDDLE
EAST AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR . . . 394
Notes and Observations .
. . 416
Index . . . 441
MAPS AND CHARTS
Net Productivity per Male
Earner in Agriculture 1934-5 . . . 210
Turkish Railways before
World War I . . . 319
Turkish Railways after
World War II . . . 328
Oilfields and Oil
Production in Middle East . . . 329
